Fig. 4

Population density and the urban psychological penalty. The bar chart shows the total global population living in different population density classes, calculated from the Gridded Population of the World for 2000 and 2020. The red lines show the increase in the hazard rate over baseline for two common mental illnesses, taken from Sundquist et al. [53], who studied 4.4 million people aged 25–64 in Sweden. Shown is the average increase in hazard rates across men and women. Note that Sweden does not have many neighborhoods with population densities above 10,000 people/km², so the Sundquist et al. results are not directly applicable to the top population density category